Yongzheng’s Passion for the Arts
The Yongzheng Emperor is described by Regina Krahl in her essay 'The Yongzheng Emperor: Art collector and patron' as 'the first true art-lover among the Manchu rulers. “Unlike the more practically minded Kangxi Emperor, who believed himself duty-bound to look after items inherited from the past and to uphold standards of craftsmanship, the Yongzheng Emperor passionately cared for and lived with works of art.” [Source: “The Three Emperors, 1662-1795,” edited by Evelyn Rawski and Jessica Rawson, China: London: Royal Academy of Arts, 2005, more than 500 coloured illustrations, p.244 \=]
According to a Book Review of “The Three Emperors” in China Heritage Quarterly: Krahl describes how the Yongzheng Emperor brought pieces inherited from the Ming palace collections out of storage for display and inspection, and would commission paintings that faithfully reproduced the porcelain and other objects that he loved. The paintings of antiques that he commissioned reflected 'an art collector's approach rather than that of a guardian of historically significant relics'. From the beginning of his reign he had the artisans of the Palace Workshops craft pieces that exemplified his artistic taste, unlike his predecessor, Kangxi, who had been interested in the mastery of technical challenges. Yongzheng developed close working relationships with the artists and craftsmen from these palace studios; from his reign period we know the names of more than a hundred artisans who prior to then had been anonymous. \=\
Yongzheng in commoner's dress
“Yongzheng sought to revitalize the declining art of porcelain and was instrumental in appointing the artist Tang Ying (1682-1756) to direct the imperial kilns in Jingdezhen. Shapes of the Tang, glazes of the Song and patterns of the Ming were rediscovered by the potters working under Tang Ying's magisterial direction for the emperor. Krahl makes the point that Yongzheng's fascination with antiquity, his collecting of antiques and his resulting passion for archaism, combined with his personal taste, demand for quality and engagement of contemporary craftsmen, gave Qing art its identity and shaped our idea of Chinese art in general. She writes that his legacy left little for his successors to develop.” \=\
According to the National Palace Museum, Taipei: Yongzheng “left behind a prodigious number of vermilion rescripts numbering in the tens of thousands of characters. This unprecedented imperial enterprise has earned him the reputation as one of the most diligent emperors in Chinese history. Yet some of the works he inspired, such as "Yongzheng's Amusements, " are still perplexing, leading to speculation about his notions of reality and fantasy. In terms of court art, Yongzheng personally supervised the production of objects with his reign mark, both fascinating for their quality and variety while revealing his lofty taste. Thus, as more materials have come to light, the Yongzheng Emperor's reputation has slowly risen to the point where his mark on history is so indelible that even today people continue to talk about him. [Source: National Palace Museum, Taipei ]
Yongzheng’s Patronage and Organization of the Arts
According to the National Palace Museum, Taipei: In cultural ventures, Yongzheng “was meticulous when it came to continuity in tradition. For example, Yongzheng supervised the completion of Completed Collection of Graphs and Writings of Ancient and Modern Times, the greatest surviving collectanea in terms of content. In his pursuit of orthodoxy, he also saw that the history of the previous dynasty was finished. With regards to arts and crafts, he sought a refined classicism and courtly manner, often ordering craftsmen in the Imperial Workshop to strive for grace and elegance, to make objects delicately thin, and to be refined in all manners of production. Combined with his interest in elements of Eastern and Western culture, he oversaw a rich output of imperial objects that differed from those of the Kangxi or Qianlong eras. The Yongzheng Emperor himself was also a talented calligrapher and writer. The effort of many court painters and artistically talented officials under Yongzheng left behind numerous works of refined painting and calligraphy.[Source: National Palace Museum, Taipei \=/ ]
Yongzheng and concubines
“As with politics and economics during the Yongzheng Emperor's rule, art and culture in his reign also featured the characteristics and function of inheriting from the past and setting the stage for the future. The second part of this exhibition on Yongzheng art and culture is divided into three sections devoted to imperial imprints, imperial objects, and court painting and calligraphy. Though a Manchu, the Yongzheng Emperor was also a strong proponent of traditional Confucian thinking in Han Chinese culture, promoting its qualities of edification and promulgation while seeking to achieve cultural continuity, both of which are reflected in his publication enterprises. To preserve books and records from the ages while passing down culture, Yongzheng saw to the completion of “Completed Collection of Graphs and Writings of Ancient and Modern Times.” And to demonstrate the orthodoxy of Qing rule, he continued the project of compiling a history of the previous Ming dynasty begun under his grandfather's rule, witnessing its printing late in his reign. \=/
“In terms of artistic production, the Yongzheng Emperor pursued cultured refinement, exhibiting a unique and lofty taste reflected in the numerous objects and works of painting and calligraphy produced at and for his court. The objects made for the imperial family in the Yongzheng reign include refined porcelains, enamelware, agate carvings, lacquerware, and Songhua inkstones, all of which followed the models and standards established by the court. Therefore, whether it is decoration, form, or technique, they clearly manifest the imperial taste and artistic style of the Yongzheng Emperor. Closer examination of these imperial objects from the Yongzheng era shows they can be divided according to the following features : imperial authority, auspiciousness, refinement, archaism and innovation, and novel elements of East and West.
“Court painting and calligraphy of the Yongzheng era includes works produced by the emperor himself and those presented by members of his family gifted in art, high officials, artistically talented officials, and artists serving the court. Whether it is calligraphy that continues the tradition of Tang and Song modelbook studies, landscape painting following the orthodox style of the Four Wangs of the early Qing, bird-and-flower painting influenced by the style of Yun Shouping, paintings with buildings or figures featuring Western perspective and shading, or works by Western missionary-painters who fused Western and Chinese styles, all reflect the pluralism of painting and calligraphy in the Yongzheng reign. \=/
Imperial objects of the Yongzheng reign, whether they imitate the forms of ancient objects, combine aspects of innovation and archaism for the glaze and decoration, or use new materials and new techniques to reinterpret the images of old, all directly reflect the trend of innovation within tradition that took place at this time. Since antiquity, objects for imperial use have served as symbols of inheriting the orthodox and expressing royal rule. As for the Yongzheng Emperor, plagued by controversy over the legitimacy of his succession to the throne, objects for the court that symbolized imperial authority became an even more important goal, with those bearing dragon motifs being the most representative of such. \=/
Yongzheng: the Calligrapher, Writer and Art Connoisseur
Yongzheng reading
According to the National Palace Museum, Taipei: “From the time he was prince, the Yongzheng Emperor was already gifted at calligraphy, copying extensively from modelbooks over the ages and being greatly admired by his father, the Kangxi Emperor. Later, under the Qianlong Emperor, Yongzheng's calligraphy was printed in "Modelbooks of the Siyi Hall" and "Modelbooks of the Langyin Pavilion" to serve as models for emulation. Whether it is Yongzheng's vermilion rescripts or works of calligraphy, both reveal how he followed the Kangxi Emperor's style, his characters being slender and compact while featuring fluid yet strong brushwork. Yongzheng also personally edited “Established Statutes In Effect” and “Vermilion-Rescript Edicts,” wrote “Discourse on Cliques,” and compiled “General Comments on the Sacred Edicts (of Kangxi)” with the purpose of promoting imperial relations and social order while edifying his subjects. [Source: National Palace Museum, Taipei \=/ ]
“Even when he was still prince, the Yongzheng Emperor had become fully cultivated in literati taste. After assuming the throne, he wanted to prevent popular images of auspiciousness from becoming vulgar, so he gradually added motifs appreciated by the refined literati (such as the pine, bamboo, and plum blossom) to the decoration and forms of court objects. With this momentum of the court, elements of popular and refined taste were combined together. Songhua inkstone shaped like a segment of bamboo (with box) Songhua inkstone shaped like a segment of bamboo (with box)\=/
“According to "Archives of the Qing Palace Workshops" in the Imperial Household Department at the Qing court, the Imperial Workshop was established by the Kangxi Emperor and had come into regular operation by Yongzheng's reign. The Imperial Workshop was responsible for the production of objects and utensils used by the imperial family, and plans for each object had to be submitted for official approval. Even so, when the decoration or shape did not meet imperial expectations, the object had to be sent back for modification, adjustment, or complete overhaul. For this reason, imperial objects made under the auspices of the Imperial Workshop fully reflect the emperor's artistic taste. In the eyes of the Yongzheng Emperor, products from the Imperial Workshop had to feature a "court style" differed from the objects made for public consumption. A large number of cultural objects in the collections of the Palace Museums in Taipei and Beijing bear Yongzheng reign marks. For this exhibition, a select group of masterpieces has been chosen, including porcelains, enamelware, agate carvings, lacquerware, glassware, and Songhua inkstones. Divided into the five categories of "Symbols of Imperial Authority," "Messages of Auspiciousness," "Refined Taste of the Literati," Archaism and Innovation," and "Novel Tastes for East and West," they sum up the features of imperial objects from the Yongzheng era.”\=/
Court Painting and Calligraphy Under Yongzheng
One of Yongzheng's twelve beauties
According to the National Palace Museum, Taipei: “During the thirteen years that the Yongzheng Emperor was on the throne, members of the imperial family, high officials, and talented officials gifted at painting and calligraphy often received imperial orders to produce works to which they signed their name with the character for "Your Servant." Better known examples of such figures include Prince Yunxi, Zhang Tingyu, Zhang Zhao, Wang Shu, Jiang Tingxi, Gao Qipei, Tang Dai, Zou Yigui, and Dai Lin. The calligraphy of this era followed the tradition of modelbook studies from the Tang and Song dynasties, landscape painting continued in the orthodox style of the "Four Wangs" in the early Qing, and bird-and-flower painting came under the influence of Yun Shouping's style. Often during important annual events, or for such major occasions as the birthday of the emperor or empress, instructions from the court would come for their illustration using the finest of materials.[Source: National Palace Museum, Taipei \=/ ]
“The style of these artworks would also often be refined and detailed, fully expressing the taste for "classical elegance and refinement" in the Yongzheng reign. According to "Archives of the Palace Workshops" in the Imperial Household Department at the Qing court, the Italian Jesuit Giuseppe Castiglione (Lang Shining), in the prime of his career serving the Qing court, frequently received orders from the emperor for paintings starting in the first year of Yongzheng's reign. Castiglione left behind many works demonstrating his court style, including such renowned ones as "One Hundred Steeds" and "Pine, Hawk, and Spirit Fungus." In the seventh year of Yongzheng's reign (1729), Castiglione worked with the official Nian Xiyao in translating into Chinese Study of Visual Aspects, which illustrated one-point perspective. Having a significant impact on court painting, this technique is reflected in the buildings depicted by such court artists as Jiao Bingzhen and Jin Jie. Finally, the Yongzheng Emperor rarely inscribed poems of praise or impressed his seals on painting and calligraphy, making him markedly different from his prolific successor, the Qianlong Emperor. \=/
“Early Qing calligraphers continued in the modelbook tradition influenced by Dong Qichang as they pursued ancient methods of the Jin and Tang dynasties to express a form of elegant strength and beauty. The calligraphy of Zhang Tingyu, Zhang Zhao, and Wang Shu serves as representatives of scholar-official calligraphy at the Yongzheng court. \=/
“The landscape painting by members of the imperial clan and talented officials at court mainly followed the landscape compositions and brushwork emphasized in orthodox landscape traditions influenced by such early Qing artists as Wang Yuanqi and Wang Hui. As for flower paintings, the style of court-officials tended to follow that of Yun Shouping for a sense of pure and elegant beauty.In addition to officials who could paint, professional artists of the painting academy at court led their disciples (Manchu: "baitangga") in filling the needs for illustrating various events and for decorating buildings at court. Their works are often highly refined and precise beauty, following in the tradition of the Southern Song painting academy and the school of Ming master Qiu Ying.”\=/
Books and Documents Under Yongzheng
Another one of the Twelve Beauties
According to the National Palace Museum, Taipei: “The most famous among the enterprises of imperial publishing from the Yongzheng reign is Completed Collection of Graphs and Writings of Ancient and Modern Times. Its entire set of books is composed of 10,000 fascicles (chapters), with the table of contents alone taking up forty. Containing about 170 million characters, this collectanea is divided into six collections loosely defined as astronomy, geography, people, things, philosophy, and economics. Each features a certain number of books and is accompanied by diagrammatic explanation, preserving vast amounts of knowledge amassed in many books and records in China over the ages, which is why it may be called the greatest encyclopedic collection of its day. And to demonstrate the orthodox status of Manchu authority to rule China, and to establish the Qing dynasty as the legitimate successor of Chinese culture, the draft version of History of the Ming, which had been compiled and edited since the Shunzhi and Kangxi eras, was finally completed in the last years of Yongzheng's reign. The most voluminous and complete of the official histories in China, it is also the one which took the longest amount of time to finish. [Source: National Palace Museum, Taipei \=/ ]
“Furthermore, to reinforce imperial authority as well as edify and promulgate, the Yongzheng Emperor personally edited commentaries on the virtues and merits of rulers in Chinese history, memorials to the throne by renowned officials, words of the ancient sages, and his own vermilion-rescript edicts. His Established Statutes In Effect and Vermilion-Rescript Edicts serve as models for how a ruler administers the country. Yongzheng's distribution of Discourse on Cliques narrates how officials should follow the principles of loyalty and righteousness in relation to a benevolent ruler. General Comments on the Sacred Edicts (of Kangxi) was also intended to instill others with the Confucian values of the "three guidances" (ruler, father, husband) and "five virtues" (benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, faithfulness) to bring peace and stability to society. By thus maintaining social order, the country and its government would theoretically remain stable. \=/
“The Yongzheng era saw the completion of the editing and printing of Completed Collection of Graphs and Writings of Ancient and Modern Times as well as the official history of the previous Ming dynasty, revealing its epochal significance in the fulfillment of projects started in the past while creating a model for the future. The former project preserves many texts from the ages, thereby passing on Chinese learning, culture, and thought to future generations. The latter serves as a model for the production of an official history and also proclaims the orthodoxy of Manchu rule in China. \=/
“The Yongzheng Emperor used many imperial imprints to vigorously promote the legitimacy of his own rule and the sagaciousness of imperial authority. Many of these publications also promulgate the principles of traditional Confucian relations, which Yongzheng employed to reinforce his rule while establishing his own lofty image as a sagacious ruler and edifying his officials and the people. \=/
"The Heyday of Peace and Prosperity" and "Noble as the Mountains and Far-reaching as Rivers" are expressions in Chinese symbolizing a hope for the strength and longevity of the dynasty, while "Fortune, Longevity, Health, and Peace" and "Sons and Grandsons for Ten-thousand Generations" are meant as blessings for the joys that most people seek life. Under the direction of the Yongzheng Emperor, these messages of auspiciousness became popular as motifs and decoration on imperial objects. Bowl decorated with blue painted enamel landscape Bowl decorated with blue painted enamel landscape\=/
Western Influences in Yongzheng-Era Art
According to the National Palace Museum, Taipei: “Aspects of Western culture from Europe and Eastern taste from Japan brought new stimulus to court productions during the Yongzheng reign. The exchange of new ideas, techniques, and forms of decoration from the East and West brought further innovation and richness to the pluralism of the objects appearing and produced at the Qing court. [Source: National Palace Museum, Taipei \=/ ]
“There was also a group of Western missionary-painters at the Qing court, and the most influential of them all was none other than Giuseppe Castilgione (also known by his Chinese name Lang Shining). He used the principles of Western perspective and the techniques and medium of Chinese painting to render a variety of subjects with great beauty and precision, especially animals and flowers. Such missionary-painters had an important impact on Qing court painting, particularly in terms of the expression of space and volume.” \=/
Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons
Text Sources: Robert Eno, Indiana University indiana.edu /+/ ; Asia for Educators, Columbia University afe.easia.columbia.edu; University of Washington’s Visual Sourcebook of Chinese Civilization, depts.washington.edu/chinaciv /=\; National Palace Museum, Taipei \=/; Library of Congress; New York Times; Washington Post; Los Angeles Times; China National Tourist Office (CNTO); Xinhua; China.org; China Daily; Japan News; Times of London; National Geographic; The New Yorker; Time; Newsweek; Reuters; Associated Press; Lonely Planet Guides; Compton’s Encyclopedia; Smithsonian magazine; The Guardian; Yomiuri Shimbun; AFP; Wikipedia; BBC. Many sources are cited at the end of the facts for which they are used.
Last updated August 2021